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Coding Manual for Adolescent-Nature Interactions at a Youth Group Home
This technical report provides our coding manual – our systematic method to code qualitative photovoice data – from a study of nature interactions supporting coping and resilience among adolescents with histories of trauma living in a youth group home. Using the interaction pattern method detailed in this coding manual, we coded interview data from 12 adolescents about their meaningful nature interactions. A total of 1212 (Level 1) IPs were coded in these data from the participant’s interviews and categorized into 62 Level 3 IPs such as viewing nature from a different vantage point, moving along the edges of nature, foraging or harvesting edibles to eat or drink, experiencing periodicity of nature, or experiencing nature with others. Related Media Q&A: UW Researchers Examine Mental Impact of Girl Scouts’ Interactions With Nature (April 21, 2025)
Read moreForest Terpenes and Stress: Examining the Associations of Filtered vs. Non-filtered Air in a Real-Life Natural Environment
Human health may benefit from exposure to a class of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) consisting of isoprene units, known as terpenes. In this double-blind, randomized crossover trial, participants sat in a forest for two 60-min sessions, one in which terpenes were filtered out of the ambient air they breathed, and another in which they were not, separated by a minimum of an eight-day washout period. The primary outcome was the high frequency (HF) component of heart rate variability (HRV; measured continuously). Secondary outcomes included skin conductance levels (SCL) (measured continuously), self-reported stress and affect (measured every 20 min), blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol and inflammatory cytokines (measured before and after sessions). Serum concentrations of terpenes (measured before and after sessions) were also assessed to investigate the association of absorbed dose with these outcomes. We did not observe a significant association of filter condition with most outcomes; although the trends for affect, systolic blood pressure, cortisol, TNF-α, and CRP were all in the hypothesized direction. We did observe a significant association with interleukin-6, which was −0.19 pg/mL lower in the terpenes-on vs. terpenes-off condition, adjusted for baseline (95 % CI: −0.35, −0.03); and SCL over the session as a whole. A sensitivity analysis of the subset of data from participants who completed both conditions supports these findings and revealed additional significant associations with SCL (95 % CI: −1.87, −0.05); and TNF-α (95 % CI: −2.63, −0.10). To our knowledge, this is the first RCT to filter terpenes from ambient air during forest contact. Highlights Powered Air Purifying Respirator (PAPR) helmets filtered terpenes from forest air. Psychophysiological and immunological correlates of stress were assessed. IL-6 serum levels lower after sessions with terpenes-on vs. terpenes-off filter. Skin conductance levels (SCL) lower across time with terpenes-on vs. terpenes-off. All other outcomes not significant, but many trended in the hypothesized directions. Keywords Terpenes; Forest; Nature; Health; Stress
Read moreThe Importance of (Not Just Visual) Interaction With Nature: A Study With the Girl Scouts
This study investigated whether children’s nature interactions that are embodied (versus only visual) would be associated with a state of being highly aware without thought, including being in “the present moment,” and/or feeling connected to something beyond the self. We refer to this state of being as Presence in nature. Using an interaction pattern approach, we coded written narratives from 127 Girl Scouts (8-11 years old) about a recent meaningful nature experience and, through a questionnaire designed for the study, assessed the degree to which participants experienced Presence in that nature experience. Exploratory analyses indicated that participants who enacted embodied interactions with nature (e.g., “making snowman,” “wrapping arms around tree,” “talking to chickens”) reported a greater sense of Presence in nature than participants whose interactions relied solely on vision (e.g., “seeing snow,” “seeing moss,” “watching pileated woodpecker”). Discussion focuses on the implications of Girl Scouts’ embodied nature interactions for environmental education. Related Media Q&A: UW Researchers Examine Mental Impact of Girl Scouts’ Interactions With Nature (April 21, 2025)
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Collective Co-existence, Climate Apocalypse, and a Nature-Relational Way Forward
We begin by looking into the future – not too far in years to be too far-fetched, but far enough to point to a critical time in terms of our collective coexistence. 15 years ahead. If we were writing this in the early 1900’s, our time frame would have been around 100 years. Our timeframe is shorter now because in technological terms the rate of change has been increasing exponentially. As an example of an exponential function, take a dollar and double it every day. After a week you have 64 dollars, which is a nice amount but nothing too surprising. But after a month you have over a billion dollars. That is part of the experience of exponential functions: They can start out looking rather modest, if not linear, but at some point shoot skyward, at which point it is difficult for the human mind to comprehend even the next iteration. So, it has been in our evolutionary history (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 2008). About 1.6 million years ago, Homo erectus is believed to have first controlled fire. About 50,000 years ago, Homo sapiens deliberately used bone, ivory, and shell objects to shape projectile points, needles, and awls, and engaged in cave painting and sculpture. About 10,000 years ago, with the rise of agriculture, rudimentary tools were invented to domesticate land and animals. By about the middle of the third millennium b.c., blast furnaces in China were invented to cast iron. By the sixth century there was the iron plow, and by the thirteenth century the spinning wheel. The Western Renaissance emerged in the 1700’s, and then after that was the Industrial Revolution. The greatest amount of technological innovation in the shortest period of time has occurred in the last fifty years, and even in the last twenty years, especially with those technologies that build on digital computation. Back in 1965, Moore’s (2006) law was that the number of transistors in microchips doubles about every two years, which pretty much continues to this day. In turn, exponential technological growth has spurred equally fast social transformations. It took 70 years for the landline telephone to become pervasive in modern societies and transform modes of communication. It took seven years for the cellphone to do the same thing; and now, more recently, for social media by means of smartphones to create “information echo chambers” where falsehoods are amplified, social life splintered, and democracies threatened.
Read moreNature and Human Well-Being: The Olfactory Pathway
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the pathway from exposure to natural olfactory environments to human well-being. The olfactory environment is characterized by the concentrations and ratios of airborne chemicals. Dimensions of olfactory function (i.e., sensitivity, discrimination, and identification) are influenced by a variety of individual and environmental factors, which together moderate olfactory perception. Subjective experience is a mediator through which olfactory perceptions lead to well-being outcomes. Relevant determinants of this experience include individual preference, culture, association, prior experience, and multisensory context. Other pathways to well-being include those that occur below the threshold of perception (i.e., subthreshold) and those that occur via initial affective responses that are suprathreshold but independent of top-down processes related to subjective experience. These components lead to a variety of well-being outcomes, from broader dimensions such as quality of and satisfaction with life, to emotional responses and emotion regulation, cognitive function, influences on behavior (social interactions and dietary choices), stress, depressive symptoms, (anti-)inflammatory processes, and effects from exposures to pathogens. Together, these outcomes are the result of subthreshold biochemical processes, initial affective responses, and subjective appraisals of odors from nature. A variety of other pathways mediate the relationship between olfactory environments and human well-being, although they are not illustrated here. Credit: University of Washington The world is undergoing massive atmospheric and ecological change, driving unprecedented challenges to human well-being. Olfaction is a key sensory system through which these impacts occur. The sense of smell influences quality of and satisfaction with life, emotion, emotion regulation, cognitive function, social interactions, dietary choices, stress, and depressive symptoms. Exposures via the olfactory pathway can also lead to (anti-)inflammatory outcomes. Increased understanding is needed regarding the ways in which odorants generated by nature (i.e., natural olfactory environments) affect human well-being. With perspectives from a range of health, social, and natural sciences, we provide an overview of this unique sensory system, four consensus statements regarding olfaction and the environment, and a conceptual framework that integrates the olfactory pathway into an understanding of the effects of natural environments on human well-being. We then discuss how this framework can contribute to better accounting of the impacts of policy and land-use decision-making on natural olfactory environments and, in turn, on planetary health. Related Media How the smells of nature can affect human well-being (May 29, 2024) How do the smells of nature affect well-being? A call for more research. (May 23, 2024) Nature’s scents linked to improved health and well-being (May 16, 2024)
Read moreQuantifying Nature: Introducing NatureScoreTM and NatureDoseTM as Health Analysis and Promotion Tools
The Value of Nature Exposure in the 21st Century Figure 1. New tools to quantify nature at any location in the United States (NatureScoreTM, left panel) and an individual’s daily or weekly exposure to nature (NatureDoseTM, right panel). The app provides NatureScoreTM values to users within a 1-km buffer, although values can be calculated at smaller distances or averaged across spatial units (i.e., census tracts). Humanity is undergoing a monumental shift. People have rapidly moved from a largely natural, outdoor existence to life in built, urban settings. Most places where people live and work differ dramatically from the ones we occupied for 99.9% of human history, and our current surroundings often physically separate us from the natural world. Most people—over half globally and approximately 4 in 5 in the United States—now live in urban areas,1 where nearby nature exposure tends to be limited2 and unequally distributed across socioeconomic and racial/ethnic subgroups.3-6 Adults in higher-income countries spend 80%-90% of their lives sedentary and indoors,7-9 with 6 to 8 hours or more spent each day looking at screens.10-12 The same is increasingly true for our developing youth,10,13,14 who may experience poorer health across their life span as a result.15 Over the last 30 years, physicians, scientists, and journalists have come to suspect that we are experiencing a “nature deficit disorder,” or “extinction of experience”.16-22 With the loss of direct exposure to nature has also come diminished knowledge of where food comes from, an inability to recognize plants and animals, fewer opportunities to experience awe (being in the presence of something vast that transcends current understandings of the world), and a failure to develop positive emotions and empathy toward other people and the non-human world.23-25 In response to growing concerns about this radical shift, scientists worldwide have studied how nature exposure is associated with human health.26-31 The links between declining nature exposure and increasing depression, anxiety, heart disease, and premature mortality are increasingly clear.26,32 A large and growing body of scientific literature demonstrates that exposure to nature, broadly encompassing green spaces, trees, parks, water bodies, deserts, wilderness areas, wildlife, and more,30,33 is associated with measurable and meaningful benefits to dozens of facets of psychological and physical health.31,33-35 These benefits can follow from nature exposure in a variety of forms, from passively viewing nature from a park bench to walking along a tree-lined street or practicing shinrin-yoku (“forest bathing”)36 in an urban forest. At a population level, the presence of nature has also been linked to important societal benefits, such as higher property values,37 lower healthcare expenses,38,39 lower levels of air pollution, noise, and heat,40-43 as well as lower crime rates,44,45 enhanced social mobility,46 more cohesive communities,47-50 and resilience to public health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.50,51 These beneficial associations are believed to result from natural areas mitigating environmental hazards, restoring cognitive capacity, reducing stress reactivity, facilitating interactions with commensurate microbiota, and promoting healthy behaviors, such as physical activity and social interaction.30,34,52,53 Like exercise, sleep, and a healthy diet,54 nature exposure may well be a necessary health behavior to promote longevity, prevent disease, and enhance wellbeing.55-57 “Nature prescribing” by healthcare providers, a growing movement, can serve as a tool for health promotion with minimal cost, side effects, equipment needs, or training requirements. Few medications or existing interventions can match these qualities. For instance, the American Heart Association’s “Life’s Essential 8” asserts that the following can help achieve an “ideal” cardiovascular health: a healthy diet, ≥150 minutes of moderate exercise or ≥75 minutes of vigorous exercise per week, not smoking or vaping, sleeping 7 to 9 hours each night, maintaining a healthy body mass index, and regularly checking and maintaining cholesterol, fasting blood sugar, and blood pressure levels.54 Nature exposure might be comparable to several of these recommendations in terms of potential health benefits and come with fewer barriers to starting and maintaining a regular practice.
Read moreBeyond “Bluespace” and “Greenspace”: A Narrative Review of Possible Health Benefits from Exposure to Other Natural Landscapes
Graphical abstract: Does exposure to natural landscapes not dominated by plants or liquid-water influence human health? Numerous studies have highlighted the physical and mental health benefits of contact with nature, typically in landscapes characterized by plants (i.e., “greenspace”) and water (i.e., “bluespace”). However, natural landscapes are not always green or blue, and the effects of other landscapes are worth attention. This narrative review attempts to overcome this limitation of past research. Rather than focusing on colors, we propose that natural landscapes are composed of at least one of three components: (1) plants (e.g., trees, flowering plants, grasses, sedges, mosses, ferns, and algae), (2) water (e.g., rivers, canals, lakes, and oceans), and/or (3) rocks and minerals, including soil. Landscapes not dominated by plants or liquid-state water include those with abundant solid-state water (e.g., polar spaces) and rocks or minerals (e.g., deserts and caves). Possible health benefits of solid-state water or rock/mineral dominated landscapes include both shorter-term (e.g., viewing images) and longer-term (e.g., living in these landscapes) exposure durations. Reported benefits span improved emotional and mental states and medical treatment resources for respiratory conditions and allergies. Mechanisms underlying the health benefits of exposure consist of commonly discussed theories in the “greenspace” and “bluespace” literature (i.e., instoration and restoration) as well as less discussed pathways in that literature (i.e., post-traumatic growth, self-determination, supportive environment theory, and place attachment). This is the first review to draw attention to the potential salutogenic value of natural landscapes beyond “greenspace” and “bluespace.” It is also among the first to highlight the limitations and confusion that result from classifying natural landscapes using color. Since the extant literature on natural landscapes – beyond those with abundant plants or liquid-state water – is limited in regard to quantity and quality, additional research is needed to understand their restorative potential and therapeutic possibilities.
Read moreChildren in Hong Kong Interacting with Relatively Wild Nature (vs. Domestic Nature) Engage in Less Dominating and More Relational Behaviors
Figure 1. Examples of relatively wild areas and relatively domestic areas. Might interacting with relatively wild forms of nature help move our world away from its largely domination-oriented and destructive sensibilities? Toward broaching this question, this study used an Interaction Pattern Approach to model child-nature interaction in a Hong Kong nature program. Observational video data were collected of 54 children (mean age 4.8 years) while they were playing in relatively wild or domestic landscapes. In total, 708 interactions were coded and categorized based on 37 distinct interaction patterns. Based on this modeling, we then tested two hypotheses: (1) that in the more domesticated nature areas, children would engage in more domination interaction patterns (e.g., catching wild animals), and (2) in the more wild nature areas, children would engage in more relational interaction patterns (e.g., cohabitating with wild animals). Both hypotheses were supported statistically. Discussion focuses on the importance of interacting with relatively wild aspects of nature, even in urban areas.
Read moreChildren’s Interactions with Relatively Wild Nature Associated with More Relational Behavior: A Model of Child-Nature Interaction in a Forest Preschool
Figure 1. Annotated maps of the Magnolia and Trillium outdoor nature classroom sites at Fiddleheads Forest Preschool in Seattle, WA. Interaction with nature is vital for children’s physical and psychological development. Nature preschools provide the means for such interaction, but little is known about the significance of child-nature interactions in these settings. Using a randomized time-sampling methodology, we conducted an observational study of 49 children in a forest preschool. Video data was collected over 35 weeks. Based on second-by-second coding, and drawing on Interaction Pattern theory, we developed a model of child-nature interaction in this setting. We then tested our hypothesis that relatively wild areas of this environment would be positively associated with child-nature behaviors that were more relational – that is, behaviors demonstrating a bond with nature or respect, including the ability to cohabitate with other lifeforms, and to promote the well-being of nature. Results confirmed this hypothesis. Discussion focuses on the phylogenetic and ontogenetic significance of the 26 modeled child-nature interactions, and the importance of more wild natural environments for human development and flourishing.
Read moreTime Spent Interacting with Nature Is Associated with Greater Well-Being for Girl Scouts Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic rendered daily life overwhelmingly difficult for many children. Given the compelling evidence for the physical and mental health benefits of interaction with nature, might it be the case that time spent interacting with nature buffered the negative effects of the pandemic for children? To address this question, we conducted a longitudinal investigation with a cohort of 137 Girl Scouts across two time periods: right before the onset of the pandemic (December 2019–February 2020) and one year later (December 2020–February 2021). We found that during the pandemic (compared to pre-pandemic), Girl Scouts fared worse on measures of physical activity, positive emotions, negative emotions, anxiety, behavioral difficulties, and problematic media use. However, by using mixed models, we also found that, on average, Girl Scouts who spent more time interacting with nature fared less poorly (in this sense, “did better”) on measures of physical activity, positive emotions, anxiety, and behavioral difficulties, irrespective of the pandemic. Further analysis revealed that these advantageous associations were present even when accounting for the amount of nature near each child’s home (as measured by the normalized difference vegetation index, percent of natural land cover, and self-reported access to nature). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating nature interaction and children’s well-being to use data collected from the same cohort prior to and during the pandemic. In addition, we discuss the importance of opportunities to interact with nature for children’s well-being during future periods of social upheaval.
Read moreCoding Manual for a Study With the Girl Scouts of Western Washington on the Importance of (Not Just Visual) Interaction With Nature
Linked vs. Non-Linked Nature Description: Coding Example #1 This technical report provides our coding manual – our systematic method to code the qualitative narrative data – from a study of Girl Scouts’ meaningful nature experiences. Other authors on this study (but not on this coding manual) include Joshua J. Lawler, Pooja S. Tandon, Gregory N. Bratman, Sara P. Perrins, and Frances Boyens. Our research question was whether children’s nature interactions that are embodied (vs. only visual) would be associated with eudemonic wellbeing. Using the interaction pattern approach detailed in this coding manual, we coded written narratives from 127 Girl Scouts (8-11 years old) about a recent meaningful nature experience, and, through a novel questionnaire, assessed Presence, a eudemonic state of wellbeing. A total of 372 interactions patterns were coded from the Girl Scouts’ written narratives. Participants who enacted embodied interactions with nature (e.g., “making snowman,” “wrapping arms around tree,” “talking to chickens”) experienced a greater sense of Presence than participants whose interactions relied solely on vision (e.g., “seeing snow,” “seeing moss,” “watching pileated woodpecker”). This technical report provides open access to our core intellectual qualitative work on this project, and can be used by others seeking to employ an interaction pattern approach, or more generally seeking to characterize people’s interactions with nature.
Read moreIn Moral Relationship with Nature: Development and Interaction
One of the overarching problems of the world today is that too many people see themselves as dominating other groups of people, and dominating nature. That is a root problem. And thus part of a core solution builds from Kohlberg’s commitment to a universal moral orientation, though extended to include not only all people but the more-than-human world: animals, trees, plants, species, ecosystems, and the land itself. In this article, Peter Kahn makes a case for this form of ethical extensionism, and then present psychological evidence for it in both children and adults, including studies with inner-city Black youth and their parents. Then he builds on Piaget’s, Kohlberg’s, and Turiel’s emphasis that interaction with the physical and social world is a critical mechanism for development. His corollary is this: that to reverse the incredibly fast human-caused destruction of nature—the wellsprings of human existence—we need to deepen and extend people’s interactions with nature, and with its relatively wild forms, even in urban environments. Toward this end, Dr. Kahn discusses his current body of research and framework for urban design based on what are referred to as interaction patterns.
Read moreInequitable Changes to Time Spent in Urban Nature During COVID-19: A Case Study of Seattle, WA with Asian, Black, Latino, and White Residents
Figure 1. Change to average frequency of urban nature interaction among each racial/ethnic group The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted everyone in urban areas. Some of these impacts in the United States have negatively affected People of Color more than their White counterparts. Using Seattle, Washington as a case study, we investigated whether inequitable effects appear in residents’ interactions with urban nature (such as urban green space). Using a 48-question instrument, 300 residents were surveyed, equally divided across four racial/ethnic groups: Asian, Black and African American, Latino/a/x, and White. Results showed that during the span of about 6 months after the onset of the pandemic, Black and Latino residents experienced a significant loss of time in urban nature, while Asian and White residents did not. The implications of these findings, including inequities in the potential buffering effects of urban nature against COVID-19 and the future of urban nature conservation, are discussed. Multiple variables were tested for association with the changes to time spent in urban nature, including themes of exclusion from urban nature spaces found throughout the existing literature. Findings show that decreases in time spent in urban nature among Black and Latino residents may be associated with their feeling as though they did not belong in urban nature. We provide recommendations based on these findings for how government agencies can promote more equitable access to urban nature during the pandemic and beyond. The results of this study have implications that extend beyond the US and are relevant to the international scholarly literature of inequities and urban nature interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Read moreTime Spent in Nature is Associated with Increased Pro-Environmental Attitudes and Behaviors
Urbanization, screen dependency, and the changing nature of childhood and parenting have led to increased time indoors, creating physical and emotional distancing from nature and time spent in natural environments. Substantial evidence from observational and intervention studies indicates that overall time spent in nature leads to increased perceived value for connectedness to nature and, subsequently, greater pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors (PEAB). This narrative review of the recent literature evaluates associations between time spent in nature with values ascribed to nature and nature connectedness, as well as PEAB. We discuss the influence of nature exposure and education in childhood on subsequent development of PEAB in adulthood. We analyze theoretical frameworks applied to this research as well as metrics employed, populations studied, and individual and societal values before presenting limitations of this research. We conclude with suggestions for future research directions based on current knowledge, underscoring the importance of promoting time spent in nature and PEAB in the face of growing challenges to planetary health. Research indicates that overall time spent in nature, regardless of the quality of environmental conditions, leads to increased perceived values ascribed to nature, which is associated with PEAB; however, this literature is predominantly cross-sectional. Furthermore, personal and social factors may influence PEAB. Thus, more longitudinal studies that consider these factors are needed to assess the duration and frequency of time spent in nature in childhood and its impact on PEAB throughout the life course. Identifying contexts which cultivate PEAB and reverse alienation from nature beginning in childhood may better sensitize adults to the urgency of environmental issues such as climate change, which adversely impact individual and environmental health.
Read moreClosing the Gap Through Rewilding, Interacting, and Overcoming
The Research Handbook on Childhoodnature provides a compilation of research in Childhoodnature and brings together existing research themes and seminal authors in the field alongside new cutting-edge research authored by world-class researchers drawing on cross-cultural and international research data. The underlying objectives of the handbook are two-fold: Opening up spaces for Childhoodnature researchers; Consolidating Childhoodnature research into one collection that informs education. The use of the new concept ‘Childhoodnature’ reflects the editors’ and authors’ underpinning belief, and the latest innovative concepts in the field, that as children are nature this should be redefined in this integrating concept. The handbook will, therefore, critique and reject an anthropocentric view of nature. As such it will disrupt existing ways of considering children and nature and reject the view that humans are superior to nature. The chapter “Closing the gap through rewilding, interacting, and overcoming” (pages 391-394) is co-authored by Peter Kahn, a Nature and Health researcher.
Read moreRelatively Wild Urban Parks can Promote Human Resilience and Flourishing: A Case Study of Discovery Park, Seattle, Washington
Human interaction with nature is vital for physical health and mental well-being, and positions a community to be resilient to urban stressors. Yet urban development continues to put pressures on natural areas within urban boundaries. As a case in point, Seattle’s largest park, Discovery Park, of over 500 acres, is often under threat of some form of development. The central question of this study was whether the benefits to visitors of Discovery Park depend, in no small measure, on the park’s very size and relative wild landscape. Toward addressing this question, 320 participants provided written narratives (through our web portal) about the meaningful ways in which they interacted with nature at Discovery Park. Each individual narrative was then analyzed and coded using an Interaction Pattern (IP) approach, which provides characterizations of human-nature interaction that have ontogenetic and phylogenetic significance. Results revealed 520 Interaction Patterns (IPs). The most frequently occurring IPs clustered under the keystone IPs of Encountering Wildlife (27%), Following Trails (14%), Walking to Destination Spots in Nature (8%), Gazing out at the Puget Sound or Mountains (6%), Walking Along Edges of Beach or Bluffs (5%), and Walking with Dogs (4%). Results also revealed that visitors’ meaningful interactions with nature in Discovery Park depended on the park’s relative wildness. For example, (a) 77% of participants’ IPs depended on Discovery Park’s relative wildness; (b) of the participants who specified an especially meaningful experience with nature, 95% of them had an interaction that depended on Discovery Park’s relative wildness; and (c) of the participants whose IPs were linked to other aspects of the nature in the park or to their own positive mental states, 95 and 96%, respectively, had an interaction that depended on Discovery Park’s relative wildness. Discussion focuses on how human interaction with large and relatively wild urban parks helps reverse the trend of environmental generational amnesia, and a domination worldview, and thus should be prioritized in urban planning.
Read moreCoding Manual for “The Nature Voices of People Who Visit Discovery Park: An Interaction Pattern Approach”
Chris TarnawskiDiscovery Park Lighthouse. Credit: Chris Tarnawski. Interaction with nature is vital for human physical health and mental well-being, yet urban development continues to put pressures on natural areas that allow for essential forms of human-nature interaction. Discovery Park, the largest park within Seattle—with over 500 acres and almost 12 miles of walking trails—is a case in point insofar as some Seattle constituents would like to develop some of its open space. The goal of this research is to give voice to how visitors of Discovery Park interact with nature at the park. To accomplish this, we applied an Interaction Pattern Approach, where “interaction patterns” are defined as fundamental ways of interacting with nature that are characterized abstractly enough such that many different instantiations of each pattern can be engendered. After their visit to Discovery Park, participants were asked to access our website (what we called “the Nature Language Website”) to write a few sentences or paragraphs that described a meaningful experience they had interacting with nature in the park. Participants were also asked a few demographic questions. This technical report provides our coding manual—our systematic method to code the qualitative data—of people who visited Discovery Park, and who wrote of how they interacted with nature in the park. This technical report thereby provides open access to our core intellectual qualitative work on this project. It can be used by others to conduct related research on how people interact with nature, and especially natural landscapes.
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Nature and Mental Health: An Ecosystem Service Perspective
Figure 1. A conceptual model for mental health as an ecosystem service. A growing body of empirical evidence is revealing the value of nature experience for mental health. With rapid urbanization and declines in human contact with nature globally, crucial decisions must be made about how to preserve and enhance opportunities for nature experience. Here, we first provide points of consensus across the natural, social, and health sciences on the impacts of nature experience on cognitive functioning, emotional well-being, and other dimensions of mental health. We then show how ecosystem service assessments can be expanded to include mental health, and provide a heuristic, conceptual model for doing so.
Read moreModeling Child–Nature Interaction in a Nature Preschool: A Proof of Concept
This article provides a proof of concept for an approach to modeling child–nature interaction based on the idea of interaction patterns: characterizations of essential features of interaction between humans and nature, specified abstractly enough such that countless different instantiations of each one can occur – in more domestic or wild forms – given different types of nature, people, and purposes. The model draws from constructivist psychology, ecological psychology, and evolutionary psychology, and is grounded in observational data collected through a time-sampling methodology at a nature preschool. Through using a nature language that emphasizes ontogenetic and phylogenetic significance, seven keystone interaction patterns are described for this nature preschool: using one’s body vigorously in nature, striking wood on wood, constructing shelter, being in solitude in nature, lying on earth, cohabiting with a wild animal, and being outside in weather. These 7 interactions patterns are then brought together with 13 other patterns published elsewhere to provide a total of 20 keystone interaction patterns that begin to fill out the model, and to show its promise. Discussion focuses on what the model aims to be in terms of both product and process, on what work the model can currently do, and how to further develop the model.
Read moreTechnological Nature and Human Well-Being
In terms of physical and psychological well-being, does it matter that on a worldwide level we are replacing interactions with actual nature with technological nature—technologies that mediate, simulate, and augment the natural word? Research from three forms of technological nature are reviewed: a technological nature window, robot pets, and a telegarden. Results suggest that while interacting with technological nature is better than nothing, it is not as good as interacting with real nature. A concern with accepting technological nature is that it can shift the baseline downward for what counts as optimal well-being, as people across generations lose experiences with healthy baselines, a process referred to as environmental generational amnesia. One result is that we ask too little of the idea of urban sustainability, confusing biological living with human flourishing.
Read moreNature Contact and Human Health: A Research Agenda
Figure 1. A spectrum of forms of nature contact. Background At a time of increasing disconnectedness from nature, scientific interest in the potential health benefits of nature contact has grown. Research in recent decades has yielded substantial evidence, but large gaps remain in our understanding. Objectives We propose a research agenda on nature contact and health, identifying principal domains of research and key questions that, if answered, would provide the basis for evidence-based public health interventions. Discussion We identify research questions in seven domains: a) mechanistic biomedical studies; b) exposure science; c) epidemiology of health benefits; d) diversity and equity considerations; e) technological nature; f) economic and policy studies; and g) implementation science. Conclusions Nature contact may offer a range of human health benefits. Although much evidence is already available, much remains unknown. A robust research effort, guided by a focus on key unanswered questions, has the potential to yield high-impact, consequential public health insights.
Read moreThe Importance of Children Interacting with Big Nature
Figure 1. A smoggy day in Beijing. The problem of environmental generational amnesia is that nature gets increasingly diminished and degraded, but children of each generation perceive the environment into which they are born as normal. Thus, across generations, the baseline shifts downward for what counts as healthy nature. One solution is to broaden and deepen children’s interactions with nature, and whenever possible, with big nature. To convey how this solution looks in practice, we draw from our observational data of children in a forest nature preschool to identify patterns of interaction with nature and illustrate how these interaction patterns may help children develop environmental capabilities, values, knowledge, intimacies, and relationships.
Read moreLiving in Cities, Naturally
Figure 1. Together with ecological benefits such as climate change mitigation and the protection of biological diversity, the renaturing of cities opens opportunities for people to engage with features and processes of the natural world; for example, when tending plants in a community garden. Natural features, settings, and processes in urban areas can help to reduce stress associated with urban life. In this and other ways, public health benefits from, street trees, green roofs, community gardens, parks and open spaces, and extensive connective pathways for walking and biking. Such urban design provisions can also yield ecological benefits, not only directly but also through the role they play in shaping attitudes toward the environment and environmental protection. Knowledge of the psychological benefits of nature experience supports efforts to better integrate nature into the architecture, infrastructure, and public spaces of urban areas.
Read moreThe Rediscovery of the Wild
A compelling case for connecting with the wild, for our psychological and physical well-being and to flourish as a species We often enjoy the benefits of connecting with nearby, domesticated nature—a city park, a backyard garden. But this book makes the provocative case for the necessity of connecting with wild nature—untamed, unmanaged, not encompassed, self-organizing, and unencumbered and unmediated by technological artifice. We can love the wild. We can fear it. We are strengthened and nurtured by it. As a species, we came of age in a natural world far wilder than today’s, and much of the need for wildness still exists within us, body and mind. The Rediscovery of the Wild considers ways to engage with the wild, protect it, and recover it—for our psychological and physical well-being and to flourish as a species. The contributors offer a range of perspectives on the wild, discussing such topics as the evolutionary underpinnings of our need for the wild; the wild within, including the primal passions of sexuality and aggression; birding as a portal to wildness; children’s fascination with wild animals; wildness and psychological healing; the shifting baseline of what we consider wild; and the true work of conservation.
Read moreIntroduction to Ecopsychology: Science, Totems, and the Technological Species
Ecopsychology: Science, Totems, and the Technological Species An ecopsychology that integrates our totemic selves—our kinship with a more than human world—with our technological selves. We need nature for our physical and psychological well-being. Our actions reflect this when we turn to beloved pets for companionship, vacation in spots of natural splendor, or spend hours working in the garden. Yet we are also a technological species and have been since we fashioned tools out of stone. Thus one of this century’s central challenges is to embrace our kinship with a more-than-human world—”our totemic self”—and integrate that kinship with our scientific culture and technological selves. This book takes on that challenge and proposes a reenvisioned ecopsychology. Contributors consider such topics as the innate tendency for people to bond with local place; a meaningful nature language; the epidemiological evidence for the health benefits of nature interaction; the theory and practice of ecotherapy; Gaia theory; ecovillages; the neuroscience of perceiving natural beauty; and sacred geography. Taken together, the essays offer a vision for human flourishing and for a more grounded and realistic environmental psychology.
Read moreTechnological Nature: Adaptation and the Future of Human Life
Why it matters that our relationship with nature is increasingly mediated and augmented by technology. Our forebears may have had a close connection with the natural world, but increasingly we experience technological nature. Children come of age watching digital nature programs on television. They inhabit virtual lands in digital games. And they play with robotic animals, purchased at big box stores. Until a few years ago, hunters could “telehunt”—shoot and kill animals in Texas from a computer anywhere in the world via a Web interface. Does it matter that much of our experience with nature is mediated and augmented by technology? In Technological Nature, Peter Kahn argues that it does, and shows how it affects our well-being. Kahn describes his investigations of children’s and adults’ experiences of cutting-edge technological nature. He and his team installed “technological nature windows” (50-inch plasma screens showing high-definition broadcasts of real-time local nature views) in inside offices on his university campus and assessed the physiological and psychological effects on viewers. He studied children’s and adults’ relationships with the robotic dog AIBO (including possible benefits for children with autism). And he studied online “telegardening” (a pastoral alternative to “telehunting”). Kahn’s studies show that in terms of human well-being technological nature is better than no nature, but not as good as actual nature. We should develop and use technological nature as a bonus on life, not as its substitute, and re-envision what is beautiful and fulfilling and often wild in essence in our relationship with the natural world.
Read moreIn the Orchard: Farm Worker Children’s Moral and Environmental Reasoning
Fig. 1. Developmental difference in use of biocentric reasoning categories. N= 40. Error bars= standard error of mean. ⁎χ2 (1, N= 40)= 5.23, pb.05, φ= .36, pb.05. In this study, farm worker children (N = 40) in 2nd and 5th grade were interviewed about (a) their conceptions and judgments of pesticide exposure and (b) their reasoning about the moral standing of nature. First, results showed that all participants negatively judged pesticide exposure based on moral obligatory criteria. Yet, most children accepted pesticide use in the orchards where they lived. Their reasoning was either based on assumptions that certain practices eliminated potential harms or coordination of potential physical harms with concerns for financial security. Second, participants expressed biocentric considerations (wherein nature is accorded moral standing) when reasoning about harms to nature. The results provide evidence of biocentric reasoning earlier than previously shown in the developmental literature, and indicate a developmental shift in the form of biocentric reasoning. Finally, the results offer support of a new methodology for disentangling human considerations from environmental moral reasoning.
Read moreCohabitating With the Wild
There is long-standing recognition that while an environmental-human discipline must do much else as well, it must ground its speculation ever anew in seeing. There is also recognition that there is as much merit to narrative as to argument. It is in this sense that this article seeks to see and to narrate, while its author is living on 670 acres of mountain land, an hour up a dirt road from the nearest town, off-line and off grid. The article focuses on what it means for an entity to be wild, how in our evolutionary past humans lived with wildness, and what of wildness might make sense in modern times. The central argument, more implied than stated, is that still today wildness remains part of the architecture of the human mind and body, and that to thrive as individuals and as a species we need to cohabitate with it.
Read moreThe Human Relation with Nature and Technological Nature
Figure 1. Examples of technological nature. HDTV plasma “windows” displaying real-time images of the local nature scene outside the building are shown (a) installed in a participant’s office in a long-term field study (Friedman, Freier, Kahn, Lin, & Sodeman, 2008); and (b) covering up a real window in the plasma-window condition of an experimental study in the lab (Kahn et al., 2008). The camera that recorded looking behavior can be seen poking out from the drapes to the left of the plasma window. The plasma screen was not present in the glass-window condition of the experimental study; and the drapes were pulled across the entire wall for the blank-wall condition. The bottom pictures show technological nature in the form of a robot dog (AIBO; from Kahn, Friedman, Perez-Granados, & Freier, 2006). In (c), the participant has just been introduced to AIBO and approaches the robot a little apprehensively. Within a couple of seconds, AIBO begins to move toward the participant; in (d), the participant is startled and appears slightly apprehensive (not unlike how a person might respond when encountering a biological dog that he or she has never met before). Two world trends are powerfully reshaping human existence: the degradation, if not destruction, of large parts of the natural world, and unprecedented technological development. At the nexus of these two trends lies technological nature—technologies that in various ways mediate, augment, or simulate the natural world. Current examples of technological nature include videos and live webcams of nature, robot animals, and immersive virtual environments. Does it matter for the physical and psychological well-being of the human species that actual nature is being replaced with technological nature? As the basis for our provisional answer (it is ‘‘yes’’), we draw on evolutionary and cross-cultural developmental accounts of the human relation with nature and some recent psychological research on the effects of technological nature. Finally, we discuss the issue—and area for future research— of ‘‘environmental generational amnesia.’’ The concern is that, by adapting gradually to the loss of actual nature and to the increase of technological nature, humans will lower the baseline across generations for what counts as a full measure of the human experience and of human flourishing. Technology has begun to change our species’ long-standing experiences with nature. Now we have technological nature—technologies that in various ways mediate, augment, or simulate the natural world. Entire television networks, such as the Discovery Channel and Animal Planet, provide us with mediated digital experiences of nature: the lion’s hunt, the Monarch’s migration, or a climb high into the Himalayan peaks. Video games like Zoo Tycoon engage children with animal life. Zoos themselves are bringing technologies such as webcams into their exhibits so that we can, for example, watch animals from the leisure of our home or a café. Inexpensive robot pets have been big sellers in the Wal-Marts and Targets of the world. Sony’s higher-end robot dog AIBO sold well. Real people now spend substantial time in virtual environments (e.g., Second Life). In terms of the physical and psychological well-being of our species, does it matter that we are replacing actual nature with technological nature? To support our provisional answer that it does matter, we draw on evolutionary and cross-cultural developmental accounts of the human relation with the natural world and then consider some recent psychological research on the effects of technological nature.
Read moreOffice Window of the Future?—Field-Based Analyses of a New Use of a Large Display
Figure 1. HDTV Camera (circled) mounted on the roof of the university building (left). Brin at work in her office with the plasma display window (right). We installed large plasma displays on the walls of seven inside offices of faculty and staff at a university, and displayed, as the default image, real-time HDTV views of the immediate outside scene. Then, utilizing a field-study methodology, data were collected over a 16-week period to explore the user experience with these large display windows. Through the triangulation of data—652 pages of interview transcripts, journal entries, and responses to email inquiries—results showed that users deeply appreciated many aspects of their experience. Benefits included a reported increase in users’ connection to the wider social community, connection to the natural world, psychological wellbeing, and cognitive functioning. Users also integrated the large display window into their workplace practice. However, users expressed concerns particularly about the impacts on the privacy of people whose images were captured in the public place by the HDTV camera. Discussion focuses on design challenges for future investigations into related uses of large displays.
Read moreDesigning for Human Values in an Urban Simulation System: Value Sensitive Design and Participatory Design
UrbanSim is a large-scale simulation system that models the development of urban areas over periods of 20 or more years. Its purpose is to help citizens and local governments make more informed decisions about major transportation and land use issues, by projecting the long-term consequences of the different alternatives. Citizens often bring strongly held values to such decisions, for example regarding equity, sustainability, environmental protection, economic expansion, or property rights, and the decisions are often politically charged. To help shape the design of UrbanSim to better support the democratic process, as well as to be responsive to the values held by different stakeholders and the conflicts among them, we are using Value Sensitive Design, a theoretically grounded approach to the design of technology that seeks to account for human values in a principled and comprehensive manner throughout the design process. Participatory Design also has a good deal to say about these issues. Thus, in this paper, we first describe UrbanSim and Value Sensitive Design, and provide a snapshot of our ongoing work in this area. We then use the UrbanSim work as an example to bring out key commonalities and differences between Value Sensitive Design and Participatory Design, and to motivate some preliminary ideas about ways in which each methodology could evolve based on techniques and concepts from the other.
Read moreChildren’s Affiliations with Nature: Structure, Development, and the Problem of Environmental Generational Amnesia
How do children reason about environmental problems? Are there universal features in children’s environmental conceptions and values? How important is it that children and young adults-like the Portuguese student above who remembers having seen a dolphin in the Rio Tejo experience natural wonders? Finally, what happens to children’s environmental commitments and sensibilities when they grow up in environmentally degraded conditions? This chapter reports on the results of five studies that the author and various colleagues conducted. In these studies, children were interviewed in diverse locations about their environmental moral conceptions and values. The author also seeks to explicate two ideas that frame his theoretical approach to investigating children’s affiliations with nature–structure and development. Finally, the author builds on the structural-developmental framework and his research findings to articulate what may be one of the most pressing and unrecognized problems of the current age—the problem of environmental generational amnesia.
Read moreThe Human Relationship with Nature: Development and Culture
Urgent environmental problems call for vigorous research and theory on how humans develop a relationship with nature. In a series of original research projects, Peter Kahn answers this call. For the past eight years, Kahn has studied children, young adults, and parents in diverse geographical locations, ranging from an economically impoverished black community in Houston to a remote village in the Brazilian Amazon. In these studies Kahn seeks answers to the following questions: How do people value nature, and how do they reason morally about environmental degradation? Do children have a deep connection to the natural world that gets severed by modern society? Or do such connections emerge, if at all, later in life, with increased cognitive and moral maturity? How does culture affect environmental commitments and sensibilities? Are there universal features in the human relationship with nature? Kahn’s empirical and theoretical findings draw on current work in psychology, biology, environmental behavior, education, policy, and moral development. This scholarly yet accessible book will be of value to practitioners in the social science and environmental fields, as well as to informed generalists interested in environmental issues and children.
Read moreBayous and Jungle Rivers: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Children’s Environmental Moral Reasoning
Similarities in moral concerns and obligations to the environment were found in the moral reasoning of African American children in Houston and Brazilian children in a large city and in a small river village.
Read moreDevelopmental Psychology and the Biophilia Hypothesis: Children’s Affiliation with Nature
A venturesome hypothesis has been put forth by Wilson (1984), Kellert (1996), and others and has been receiving increasing support. The hypothesis asserts the existence of biophilia, a fundamental, genetically based human need and propensity to affiliate with other living organisms. A review of the biophilia literature sets into motion three overarching concerns. One focuses on the genetic basis of biophilia. A second focuses on how to understand seemingly negative affiliations with nature within the biophilic framework. A third focuses on the quality of supporting evidence and whether the biophilia hypothesis can be disconfirmed. Through this critical examination, biophilia emerges as a valuable interdisciplinary framework for investigating the human affiliation with nature. Yet it is clearly a nascent framework, and some of its potential lies in charting a stronger ontogenetic course. Toward this end, in the second half of this article a structural–developmental approach is framed for investigating biophilia. Support for this approach is provided by discussing the author’s recent studies—conducted in the United States and in the Brazilian Amazon—on children’s environmental reasoning and values.
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