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What Types of Nature Exposure Are Associated With Hedonic, Eudaimonic and Evaluative Wellbeing? An 18-Country Study
Figure 2. Summary of fully adjusted models of all dimensions of SWB and residential availability and visits to green space, coastal blue space and freshwater blue space. Although spending time in nature can improve subjective wellbeing (SWB), little is known about how different types of nature exposure are associated with different dimensions of SWB or the consistency of associations across national/cultural contexts. Using data from 18 countries, associations between green, coastal and freshwater blue space exposures (including residential availability, visits ‘yesterday’ and visits in the previous four weeks) and hedonic, eudaimonic, and evaluative wellbeing were estimated. Overall, residential nature availability showed little association with any wellbeing outcome, whereas visiting green and coastal locations ‘yesterday’ was associated with better hedonic wellbeing. Although frequently visiting green, coastal and freshwater spaces were all associated with greater evaluative wellbeing, greater eudaimonic wellbeing was only associated with frequent visits to green and freshwater spaces. Variations existed across countries. Results suggest that different types of nature exposure vary in their association with different dimensions of SWB. Understanding these differences may help us maximise the potential of natural environments as SWB-promoting resources.
Read moreApplying an Ecosystem Services Framework on Nature and Mental Health to Recreational Blue Space Visits Across 18 Countries
The effects of nature on mental health and subjective well-being have yet to be consistently integrated into ecosystem service models and frameworks. To address this gap, we used data on subjective mental well-being from an 18-country survey to test a conceptual model integrating mental health with ecosystem services, initially proposed by Bratman et al. We analysed a range of individual and contextual factors in the context of 14,998 recreational visits to blue spaces, outdoor environments which prominently feature water. Consistent with the conceptual model, subjective mental well-being outcomes were dependent upon on a complex interplay of environmental type and quality, visit characteristics, and individual factors. These results have implications for public health and environmental management, as they may help identify the bluespace locations, environmental features, and key activities, that are most likely to impact well-being, but also potentially affect recreational demand on fragile aquatic ecosystems.
Read moreBeyond “Bluespace” and “Greenspace”: A Narrative Review of Possible Health Benefits from Exposure to Other Natural Landscapes
Graphical abstract: Does exposure to natural landscapes not dominated by plants or liquid-water influence human health? Numerous studies have highlighted the physical and mental health benefits of contact with nature, typically in landscapes characterized by plants (i.e., “greenspace”) and water (i.e., “bluespace”). However, natural landscapes are not always green or blue, and the effects of other landscapes are worth attention. This narrative review attempts to overcome this limitation of past research. Rather than focusing on colors, we propose that natural landscapes are composed of at least one of three components: (1) plants (e.g., trees, flowering plants, grasses, sedges, mosses, ferns, and algae), (2) water (e.g., rivers, canals, lakes, and oceans), and/or (3) rocks and minerals, including soil. Landscapes not dominated by plants or liquid-state water include those with abundant solid-state water (e.g., polar spaces) and rocks or minerals (e.g., deserts and caves). Possible health benefits of solid-state water or rock/mineral dominated landscapes include both shorter-term (e.g., viewing images) and longer-term (e.g., living in these landscapes) exposure durations. Reported benefits span improved emotional and mental states and medical treatment resources for respiratory conditions and allergies. Mechanisms underlying the health benefits of exposure consist of commonly discussed theories in the “greenspace” and “bluespace” literature (i.e., instoration and restoration) as well as less discussed pathways in that literature (i.e., post-traumatic growth, self-determination, supportive environment theory, and place attachment). This is the first review to draw attention to the potential salutogenic value of natural landscapes beyond “greenspace” and “bluespace.” It is also among the first to highlight the limitations and confusion that result from classifying natural landscapes using color. Since the extant literature on natural landscapes – beyond those with abundant plants or liquid-state water – is limited in regard to quantity and quality, additional research is needed to understand their restorative potential and therapeutic possibilities.
Read moreMechanisms Underlying Childhood Exposure to Blue Spaces and Adult Subjective Well-Being: An 18-Country Analysis
Figure 1. Conceptual model linking childhood exposure to blue spaces to adult subjective well-being with serial-parallel mediation through intrinsic motivation and recent visits to blue and green spaces (solid lines = indirect paths, dotted lines = direct paths). Contact with natural environments is associated with good health and well-being. Although childhood nature experiences may be important in the development of an individual’s relationship with nature and subsequent well-being, previous studies have tended to focus on ‘nature’ in general, and the mechanisms by which childhood experiences influence well-being in adulthood remain insufficiently studied. Drawing on cross-sectional survey data from an 18-country sample (N = 15,743) the current work extended previous research by examining: a) blue spaces (coasts, rivers, lakes, etc.) in particular; b) associations between adults’ recalled childhood exposure to blue spaces, frequency of recent visits to green and blues spaces, and adult subjective well-being; c) the role of childhood exposure to blue spaces on intrinsic motivations to spend time in nature; and d) the consistency of these relationships across different countries. Tests of a model where childhood exposure to blue spaces was linked to adult subjective well-being serially through intrinsic motivation and then recent blue and green space visits exhibited a good fit, a pattern largely consistent across all 18 countries. However, an alternative model where recent visits predicted intrinsic motivation also demonstrated good fit, indicating that these processes may be iterative. Building familiarity with and confidence in and around blue spaces in childhood may stimulate a joy of, and greater propensity to spend recreational time in, nature in adulthood, with positive consequences for adult subjective well-being.
Read moreAssociations Between Green/Blue Spaces and Mental Health Across 18 Countries
Figure 1. Relationships between: (1) Green space visits in last 4 weeks, (2) Inland-blue space visits in last 4 weeks, (3) Coastal-blue space visits in last 4 weeks, and (4) nature connectedness (1–7); and positive well-being (0–100; a,e,l,m), risk of mental distress (0–1; b,f,j,n), use of depression medication (0–1; c,g,k,o), and use of anxiety medication (0–1; d,h,l,p), averaged across 18 countries (n = 16,302). Living near, recreating in, and feeling psychologically connected to, the natural world are all associated with better mental health, but many exposure-related questions remain. Using data from an 18-country survey (n = 16,307) we explored associations between multiple measures of mental health (positive well-being, mental distress, depression/anxiety medication use) and: (a) exposures (residential/recreational visits) to different natural settings (green/inland-blue/coastal-blue spaces); and (b) nature connectedness, across season and country. People who lived in greener/coastal neighbourhoods reported higher positive well-being, but this association largely disappeared when recreational visits were controlled for. Frequency of recreational visits to green, inland-blue, and coastal-blue spaces in the last 4 weeks were all positively associated with positive well-being and negatively associated with mental distress. Associations with green space visits were relatively consistent across seasons and countries but associations with blue space visits showed greater heterogeneity. Nature connectedness was also positively associated with positive well-being and negatively associated with mental distress and was, along with green space visits, associated with a lower likelihood of using medication for depression. By contrast inland-blue space visits were associated with a greater likelihood of using anxiety medication. Results highlight the benefits of multi-exposure, multi-response, multi-country studies in exploring complexity in nature-health associations.
Read moreCasting a Wide Net and Making the Most of the Catch
Usha Varanasi describes lessons learned and the people and principles that influenced six decades of professional endeavours from graduate schools to ascending, often unexpectedly, the science and management ladder in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries, which manages US living marine resources. For this woman chemist from India, the twists of fate and love of adventure presented amazing opportunities as well as challenges. Her research on cetacean biosonar as well as on the impact of fossil fuel pollution on seafood safety and the health of marine organisms taught her the value of multidisciplinary approaches and unusual alliances. Transitioning into management, and eventually as the director of Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Usha learned the value of transparency and empathy while communicating our results to impacted communities, and the resolve to support the science regardless of the consequences. Her advice to young professionals is that the journey should be as fulfilling as reaching the goalpost.
Read moreTaking the Long View for Oceans and Human Health Connection through Community-Driven Science
Figure 1. Olympic Region Harmful Algal Bloom (ORHAB) partners and sampling sites. The most proactive approach to resolving current health and climate crises will require a long view, focused on establishing and fostering partnerships to identify and eliminate root causes of the disconnect between humans and nature. We describe the lessons learned through a unique scientific partnership that addresses a specific crisis, harmful algal blooms (HABs), along the northeast Pacific Ocean coast, that blends current-day technology with observational knowledge of Indigenous communities. This integrative scientific strategy resulted in creative solutions for forecasting and managing HAB risk in the Pacific Northwest as a part of the US Ocean and Human Health (OHH) program. Specific OHH projects focused on: Understanding genetic responses of Tribal members to toxins in the marine environment Knowledge sharing by elders during youth camps Establishing an early warning program to alert resource managers of HABs are explicit examples of proactive strategies used to address environmental problems. The research and monitoring projects with Tribal communities taught the collaborating non-Indigenous scientists the value of reciprocity, highlighting both the benefits from and protection of oceans that promote our well-being. Effective global oceans and human health initiatives require a collective action that gives equal respect to all voices to promote forward thinking solutions for ocean health.
Read moreProtecting Health in Dry Cities: Considerations for Policy Makers
Water has always been essential for cities to survive and thrive. The earliest cities, from 4000 BC, were founded near water sources. Conversely, water scarcity might have contributed to the demise of ancient cities such as Tikal in present day Guatemala and Angkor in present day Cambodia. Water deprivation was also used as a weapon in ancient times; when Sennacherib of Assyria ransacked Babylon in 689 BC, he destroyed the city’s water supply. Dry cities present complex challenges in a dynamic world. The supply of water in many cities will increasingly fall short of demand, with diverse and potentially severe effects on health. In a world of pervasive inequalities, water scarcity is likely to hit the most vulnerable hardest. The challenge of achieving health in dry cities is intensified in the setting of resource scarcity, state and societal fragility, and weak institutions. The inter-relation between human health and the environment needs to be central to planning and management of both water and health systems. Promoting health and wellbeing in dry cities is essential to achieving the sustainable development goals. Innovation will be key to progress; it requires foresight, strong institutions, and action from many people. Today’s global population is increasingly urban, and the world is increasingly hot, with dry regions becoming drier. Dry cities have scarce water relative to demand. An estimated 150 million people live in cities that have perennial water shortage. Some cities are dry because of their location in arid environments, with low levels of fresh water, precipitation, or both. In the year 2000 about 27% of the world’s urban area was in drylands. Many of the world’s most water stressed countries are in the Middle East and North Africa. Doha, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai in the Gulf region, and desert cities, including Cairo (Egypt) and Windhoek (Namibia), Antofagasta (Chile), Trujillo (Peru), Phoenix, and Las Vegas (United States) are widely recognized as “dry cities.” Other cities are dry because of a temporary scarcity of water, or drought, influenced by factors including local hydrology, climate, and human activities. Semi-arid regions may have dry cities if drought strikes, if demand grows much faster than supply and/or if the city cannot keep pace owing to poor governance or inadequate infrastructure. Such cities include Cape Town (South Africa) and Gaborone (Botswana). Other cities, such as São Paulo (Brazil) and Chennai (India), historically have had ample water supply, but have recently confronted scarcity. Still others, such as Los Angeles (US) and Bangalore (India), are forecast to become short of water in coming years.
Read moreResearch Note: Residential Distance and Recreational Visits to Coastal and Inland Blue Spaces in Eighteen Countries
Figure 1. Given residential locations (correct to three decimal degrees) of the 15,216 respondents included in analysis. The map of Spain includes respondents resident in the autonomous city of Melilla. Respondents resident in the Canary Islands, Azores, and Madeira are not displayed. Varied categorisations of residential distance to bluespace in population health studies make comparisons difficult. Using survey data from eighteen countries, we modelled relationships between residential distance to blue spaces (coasts, lakes, and rivers), and self-reported recreational visits to these environments at least weekly, with penalised regression splines. We observed exponential declines in visit probability with increasing distance to all three environments and demonstrated the utility of derived categorisations. These categories may be broadly applicable in future research where the assumed underlying mechanism between residential distance to a blue space and a health outcome is direct recreational contact.
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